The Ultimate authority for The Hindus is the Vedas.
Map of Vedic India
Those who follow the Vedas are Astikas, meaning “It is”
Those who deny it are ‘Nastikas, “Deniers’
Now the terms Astika and Nastika are used to denote Faith in God,Refuting God respectively .
This is incorrect.
The Vedas are not written nor were they originated from some one.
It is believed to be The Breath, both Inhaling and Exhaling of the Creator, Brahma>( Usvaasa and Visvaasa)
These , in turn were reported to have been revealed to Brahma in a flash when He did penance , contemplating Lord Narayana from whose Navel Brahma evolved
Vedas are sounds.
Brahma converted them into language with the help of his consort Goddess Sarasvati.
These sounds are intuitively grabbed by the Seers later from the Ether.
As such the Vedas were not authored.
So they are called ‘Anaadi’ beginning-less.
The Vedas are four in Number.
Rig,
Yajur, (has Shukla or White Yajur;Krishna Yajur, Black Yajur)
The Samhitas (Sanskrit saṃhitā, “collection”), are collections of metric texts (“mantras“). There are four “Vedic” Samhitas: the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda, most of which are available in several recensions (śākhā). In some contexts, the term Veda is used to refer to these Samhitas. This is the oldest layer of Vedic texts, apart from the Rigvedic hymns, which were probably essentially complete by 1200 BCE, dating to c. the 12th to 10th centuries BCE. The complete corpus of Vedic mantras as collected in Bloomfield‘s Vedic Concordance(1907) consists of some 89,000 padas (metric feet), of which 72,000 occur in the four Samhitas.
The Brahmanas are prose texts that discuss, in technical fashion, the solemn sacrificial rituals as well as comment on their meaning and many connected themes. Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions. The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads.
The Aranyakas, “wilderness texts” or “forest treaties”, were composed by people who meditated in the woods as recluses and are the third part of the Vedas. The texts contain discussions and interpretations of dangerous rituals (to be studied outside the settlement) and various sorts of additional materials. It is frequently read in secondary literature.
The Shrauta Sutras, regarded as belonging to the smriti, are late Vedic in language and content, thus forming part of the Vedic Sanskrit corpus.[27][28] The composition of the Shrauta and Grhya Sutras (c. 6th century BCE) marks the end of the Vedic period, and at the same time the beginning of the flourishing of the “circum-Vedic” scholarship of Vedanga, introducing the early flowering of classical Sanskrit literature in the Mauryan and Gupta periods.
While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceases with the end of the Vedic period, there is a large number of Upanishads composed after the end of the Vedic period. While most of the tenMukhya Upanishads can be considered to date to the Vedic or Mahajanapada period, most of the 108 Upanishads of the full Muktika canon date to the Common Era.
The Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads often interpret the polytheistic and ritualistic Samhitas in philosophical and metaphorical ways to explore abstract concepts such as the Absolute (Brahman), and the soul or the self (Atman), introducing Vedanta philosophy, one of the major trends of later Hinduism.
Shakas.
A shakha (Sanskritśākhā, “branch” or “limb”), is a Hindu theological school that specializes in learning certain Vedic texts, or else the traditional texts followed by such a school.
An individual follower of a particular school or recension is called a śākhin.[5] The term is also used in Hindu philosophy to refer to an adherent of a particular orthodox system.
One who belongs to a particular Shaka must learn from a Guru, The Preceptor.
It might also of interest to know what the basis is for Axioms ,.
Those are assumptions of Science that can not be questioned.
They give it a fancy name for it,
‘Self Evident’
If science is perfect and the end of all, why so frequently it changes its Theories?
So far as information goes, the Scientists have been rushing in ships, planes the moment a Solar eclipse is announced, with a pompous statement that the investigation would solve many mysteries of the Sun and enhance our knowledge of the Sun.
Yet the information about the Sun is the same as it was .when I was in High School, in the early sixties.
Creative Giants like Shakespeare, Milton,William Wordsworth,
Great Military strategists Alexander the Great,Napoleon Bonaparte.
I am deliberately omitting fools like Sri Adi Shankaracharya,Varahamihira, Arya Bhatta,Charaka,Vararuchi, Susrutha,Kalidasa,Patanjali …….
It is easy for a fool to deny.
It requires wisdom to prove.
It is easier to deny facts by saying I have not seen it.
But one believes in a great Grand Father whom one has not seen.
They have not defined what Religion is in this Study. but they define Religiosity.
Seems that they have taken Christianity as the basis.
And what are the representative sample of Culture,Ethnicity parameters that have been taken into account?
Einstein On God.
”
A piece of University of Rochester analysis, led by Professor Miron Zuckerman, found “a reliable negative relation between intelligence and religiosity” in 53 out of 63 studies.
In old age above average intelligence people are less likely to believe, the researchers also found.
One of the studies used in Zuckerman’s paper was a life-long analysis of the beliefs of 1,500 gifted children with with IQs over 135.
The study began in 1921 and continues today. Even in extreme old age the subjects had much lower levels of religious belief than the average population.
The review, which is the first systematic meta-analysis of the 63 studies conducted in between 1928 and 2012, showed that of the 63 studies, 53 showed a negative correlation between intelligence and religiosity, while 10 showed a positive one.
Only two studies showed significant positive correlations and significant negative correlations were seen in a total of 35 studies.
Religiosity is defined by the psychologists as involvement in some (or all) facets of religion.
Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543)
Copernicus was the Polish astronomer who put forward the first mathematically based system of planets going around the sun. He attended various European universities, and became a Canon in the Catholic church in 1497. His new system was actually first presented in the Vatican gardens in 1533 before Pope Clement VII who approved, and urged Copernicus to publish it around this time. Copernicus was never under any threat of religious persecution – and was urged to publish both by Catholic Bishop Guise, Cardinal Schonberg, and the Protestant Professor George Rheticus. Copernicus referred sometimes to God in his works, and did not see his system as in conflict with the Bible.
Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1627)
Bacon was a philosopher who is known for establishing the scientific method of inquiry based on experimentation and inductive reasoning. In De Interpretatione Naturae Prooemium, Bacon established his goals as being the discovery of truth, service to his country, and service to the church. Although his work was based upon experimentation and reasoning, he rejected atheism as being the result of insufficient depth of philosophy, stating, “It is true, that a little philosophy inclineth man’s mind to atheism, but depth in philosophy bringeth men’s minds about to religion; for while the mind of man looketh upon second causes scattered, it may sometimes rest in them, and go no further; but when it beholdeth the chain of them confederate, and linked together, it must needs fly to Providence and Deity.” (Of Atheism)
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
Kepler was a brilliant mathematician and astronomer. He did early work on light, and established the laws of planetary motion about the sun. He also came close to reaching the Newtonian concept of universal gravity – well before Newton was born! His introduction of the idea of force in astronomy changed it radically in a modern direction. Kepler was an extremely sincere and pious Lutheran, whose works on astronomy contain writings about how space and the heavenly bodies represent the Trinity. Kepler suffered no persecution for his open avowal of the sun-centered system, and, indeed, was allowed as a Protestant to stay in Catholic Graz as a Professor (1595-1600) when other Protestants had been expelled!
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
Galileo is often remembered for his conflict with the Roman Catholic Church. His controversial work on the solar system was published in 1633. It had no proofs of a sun-centered system (Galileo’s telescope discoveries did not indicate a moving earth) and his one “proof” based upon the tides was invalid. It ignored the correct elliptical orbits of planets published twenty five years earlier by Kepler. Since his work finished by putting the Pope’s favorite argument in the mouth of the simpleton in the dialogue, the Pope (an old friend of Galileo’s) was very offended. After the “trial” and being forbidden to teach the sun-centered system, Galileo did his most useful theoretical work, which was on dynamics. Galileo expressly said that the Bible cannot err, and saw his system as an alternate interpretation of the biblical texts.
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
Descartes was a French mathematician, scientist and philosopher who has been called the father of modern philosophy. His school studies made him dissatisfied with previous philosophy: He had a deep religious faith as a Roman Catholic, which he retained to his dying day, along with a resolute, passionate desire to discover the truth. At the age of 24 he had a dream, and felt the vocational call to seek to bring knowledge together in one system of thought. His system began by asking what could be known if all else were doubted – suggesting the famous “I think therefore I am”. Actually, it is often forgotten that the next step for Descartes was to establish the near certainty of the existence of God – for only if God both exists and would not want us to be deceived by our experiences – can we trust our senses and logical thought processes. God is, therefore, central to his whole philosophy. What he really wanted to see was that his philosophy be adopted as standard Roman Catholic teaching. Rene Descartes and Francis Bacon (1561-1626) are generally regarded as the key figures in the development of scientific methodology. Both had systems in which God was important, and both seem more devout than the average for their era.
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) Pascal was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer and theologian. In mathematics, he published a treatise on the subject of projective geometry and established the foundation for probability theory. Pascal invented a mechanical calculator, and established the principles of vacuums and the pressure of air. He was raised a Roman Catholic, but in 1654 had a religious vision of God, which turned the direction of his study from science to theology. Pascal began publishing a theological work,Lettres provinciales, in 1656. His most influential theological work, the Pensées (“Thoughts”), was a defense of Christianity, which was published after his death. The most famous concept from Pensées was Pascal’s Wager. Pascal’s last words were, “May God never abandon me.”
Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
In optics, mechanics, and mathematics, Newton was a figure of undisputed genius and innovation. In all his science (including chemistry) he saw mathematics and numbers as central. What is less well known is that he was devoutly religious and saw numbers as involved in understanding God’s plan for history from the Bible. He did a considerable work on biblical numerology, and, though aspects of his beliefs were not orthodox, he thought theology was very important. In his system of physics, God was essential to the nature and absoluteness of space. In Principia he stated, “The most beautiful system of the sun, planets, and comets, could only proceed from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful Being.”
Robert Boyle (1791-1867)
One of the founders and key early members of the Royal Society, Boyle gave his name to “Boyle’s Law” for gases, and also wrote an important work on chemistry. Encyclopedia Britannica says of him: “By his will he endowed a series of Boyle lectures, or sermons, which still continue, ‘for proving the Christian religion against notorious infidels…’ As a devout Protestant, Boyle took a special interest in promoting the Christian religion abroad, giving money to translate and publish the New Testament into Irish and Turkish. In 1690 he developed his theological views in The Christian Virtuoso, which he wrote to show that the study of nature was a central religious duty.” Boyle wrote against atheists in his day (the notion that atheism is a modern invention is a myth), and was clearly much more devoutly Christian than the average in his era.
Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
Michael Faraday was the son of a blacksmith who became one of the greatest scientists of the 19th century. His work on electricity and magnetism not only revolutionized physics, but led to much of our lifestyles today, which depends on them (including computers and telephone lines and, so, web sites). Faraday was a devoutly Christian member of the Sandemanians, which significantly influenced him and strongly affected the way in which he approached and interpreted nature. Originating from Presbyterians, the Sandemanians rejected the idea of state churches, and tried to go back to a New Testament type of Christianity.
Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)
Mendel was the first to lay the mathematical foundations of genetics, in what came to be called “Mendelianism”. He began his research in 1856 (three years before Darwin published his Origin of Species) in the garden of the Monastery in which he was a monk. Mendel was elected Abbot of his Monastery in 1868. His work remained comparatively unknown until the turn of the century, when a new generation of botanists began finding similar results and “rediscovered” him (though their ideas were not identical to his). An interesting point is that the 1860’s was notable for formation of the X-Club, which was dedicated to lessening religious influences and propagating an image of “conflict” between science and religion. One sympathizer was Darwin’s cousin Francis Galton, whose scientific interest was in genetics (a proponent of eugenics – selective breeding among humans to “improve” the stock). He was writing how the “priestly mind” was not conducive to science while, at around the same time, an Austrian monk was making the breakthrough in genetics. The rediscovery of the work of Mendel came too late to affect Galton’s contribution.
William Thomson Kelvin (1824-1907)
Kelvin was foremost among the small group of British scientists who helped to lay the foundations of modern physics. His work covered many areas of physics, and he was said to have more letters after his name than anyone else in the Commonwealth, since he received numerous honorary degrees from European Universities, which recognized the value of his work. He was a very committed Christian, who was certainly more religious than the average for his era. Interestingly, his fellow physicists George Gabriel Stokes (1819-1903) and James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) were also men of deep Christian commitment, in an era when many were nominal, apathetic, or anti-Christian. The Encyclopedia Britannica says “Maxwell is regarded by most modern physicists as the scientist of the 19th century who had the greatest influence on 20th century physics; he is ranked with Sir Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein for the fundamental nature of his contributions.” Lord Kelvin was anOld Earth creationist, who estimated the Earth’s age to be somewhere between 20 million and 100 million years, with an upper limit at 500 million years based on cooling rates (a low estimate due to his lack of knowledge about radiogenic heating).
Max Planck (1858-1947)
Planck made many contributions to physics, but is best known for quantum theory, which revolutionized our understanding of the atomic and sub-atomic worlds. In his 1937 lecture “Religion and Naturwissenschaft,” Planck expressed the view that God is everywhere present, and held that “the holiness of the unintelligible Godhead is conveyed by the holiness of symbols.” Atheists, he thought, attach too much importance to what are merely symbols. Planck was a churchwarden from 1920 until his death, and believed in an almighty, all-knowing, beneficent God (though not necessarily a personal one). Both science and religion wage a “tireless battle against skepticism and dogmatism, against unbelief and superstition” with the goal “toward God!”
Scientists who were Atheists.
Ernst Abbe (1840–1905): German physicist, optometrist, entrepreneur, and social reformer. Together with Otto Schott and Carl Zeiss, he laid the foundation of modernoptics. Abbe developed numerous optical instruments. He was a co-owner of Carl Zeiss AG, a German manufacturer of research microscopes, astronomical telescopes, planetariums and other optical systems.[1]
Zhores Alferov (1930–): Soviet and Russian physicist and academic who contributed significantly to the creation of modern heterostructure physics and electronics. He is an inventor of the heterotransistor and the winner of 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics.[2][3]
* I have received quite a few comments, most of them to my email personally.
In general, people seem to agree.
Probably they feel it is embarrassing to them to state this in Public,as this, I feel unnecessarily.
Those who disagree, in email and in the comments, do not address the points I have raised in the post.
One comment says that
”
Science is a process, not a body of knowledge. Theories change because scientists continue to learn more about nature. Religion is the opposite of science. Religion does not require evidence.
Of course, many scientists believe in God. That does not prove that God exists; it just means that scientists are human and look to faith when they reach the limits of their knowledge.”
I am replying this in the Post rather than in the Comments to enable readers to respond to the thought.
That ‘Science is not a body of Knowledge’ is new to me.
Precisely what I am driving at.
Science is an attempt to understand with a system.
Philosophy is called the Mother of all Sciences as it examines the fundamentals of Science.
Religion is not the opposite of Science.
It supplements Science,especially Indian Philosophy.
Religion provides Proof.
We do not follow the methodology while we do it for Science.
Religion is the understanding of the self and the Universe with what one possesses ,which Science does not attempt to examine.
Indian tradition states that the intermingling of people from the North and South, separated by the Vindhya Mountains , started taking place during the time when Sage Viswamitra lived.
Sage Viswamitra banished his 56 children to the ‘Dravida‘ ,meaning South of Vindhya Mountains, as they disobeyed him.
They moved to the South, found a culturally rich civilization , married integrated the Veda and Dravidian Customs and formed the Agamas.
Sage Apasthamba compiled the Vedas for those living south of the Vindhyas , comprising the best of both the Cultures and gave the Apasthamba Sutra,.
This is practiced in the South even today.
Recent studies date this period around 4000 years earlier from now.
This roughly corresponds to the beginning of Kali Yuga of Indian calendar.
The characteristics and specific issues are elaborated in the Tholkappiyam Agathiyam, the ancient works in Tamil.
Each area had its own God’s,Profession and social Mores.
Cowherds lived in Mullai,farmers in Marutham, Hunters in Kurinji,Fishermen in Neyadal and Kallars in Palai.
There were injunctions against marrying from different geographical group.
So the Caste system is not because of the mingling from the North.
The Study at best conveys the fact that people from the North started mingling with each other , that’s all.
This does not mean that Caste has been imported to South from the North.
This confusion or deliberate misinformation is because of the Myth of Aryan Invasion of the South.
Please read my posts on Aryan Invasion Myths and On Viswamitra.
The name Viswamitra appears in all the Four Yugas, or the Time Scale of the Hindus,
it is difficult to assign a time for him.
And Viswamitra is a Nom de plume, meaning ‘friend of the Universe ‘.
The name of the Viswamitra as it appears in the Ramayana, which took place in the Treta Yuga, is Kausika.
And the Viswamitra of Dwapara Yuga can not be same as the Yugas are separated by thousands of Years.
Unless people were living for very long period of time, which, in my opinion, is possible.
More important is the concept of Time in Hinduism.
Human Migration.
Read my post on Time.
There is another anomaly in the study.
It says the intermingling of the North and South stopped about 2000 years ago.
Are there not marriages today between the people of the north and the South?
Some more doubts on Viswamitra,
“I had some confusion about Sage Vishwamitra. We hear
about Sage Vishwamitra in many places:
[1] Much before the Lord Rama came down to the earth.
(Vishwamitra was the one who build the heaven for the
ancestor of Lord Rama, Satyavrata, later called as
Trishanku).
[2] Then Vishwamitra went into penance with an enimity
with Sage Vasista. Thats when Gayathri mantra was
given to us.
[3] During the penance Menaka comes down and from them
is born the Bharatha dynasty king – Dushyant. So does
that mean while Lord Rama’s dynasty (SuryaVamsa) were
ruling in Treta Yuga, the seed for the Bharatha’s
dynasty (ChandraVamsa) was sown and set to begin in
Dwapara Yuga? in which Yugas did the Chandra Vamsa and
Surya Vamsa dynasties gain importance?…
I cannot provide you with a religious/spiritual answer, but as far as chronology
is concerned – here is my answer:
If you please refer to my ‘Royal Chronology of India’ at
(http://www.newdharma.org/India_Chron.zip) you’ll see the name Vishvamitra come
up many times (as you will also see with Vasishtha) because these are not one
person. They represent an incredible lineage of Rsis going back thousands of
years. These priests have been mentioned in our scriptures by their family
names (“last names”) and on a few occassions their first names are also
mentioned.
”
Analysis of mtDNA Suggests a Proto-Asian Origin ofIndians
MtDNA HVR1 genetic distances between caste populations and Africans, Asians, and Europeans are significantly different from zero (p<0.001) and reveal that, regardless of rank, each caste group is most closely related to Asians and is most dissimilar from Africans (Table (Table1).1). The genetic distances from major continental populations (e.g., Europeans) differ among the three caste groups, and the comparison reveals an intriguing pattern. As one moves from lower to upper castes, the distance from Asians becomes progressively larger. The distance between Europeans and lower castes is larger than the distance between Europeans and upper castes, but the distance between Europeans and middle castes is smaller than the upper caste-European distance. These trends are the same whether the Kshatriya and Vysya are included in the upper castes, the middle castes, or excluded from the analysis. This may be owing, in part, to the small sample size (n=10) of each of these castes. Among the upper castes the genetic distance between Brahmins and Europeans (0.10) is smaller than that between either the Kshatriya and Europeans (0.12) or the Vysya and Europeans (0.16). Assuming that contemporary Europeans reflect West Eurasian affinities, these data indicate that the amount of West Eurasian admixture with Indian populations may have been proportionate to caste rank.”
“India’s caste system, says a new genetic study, began about 2,000 years ago. The study adds that people from different genetic populations — from the North and the South — began to mix with each other about 4,200 years ago but that the mixing stopped about 2,000 years ago.
The study was carried out by Harvard Medical School and the CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) in Hyderabad. David Reich, a professor of genetics at Harvard Medical School, said that the caste system in India has been around for a long time, but that it had certainly not begun right at the very beginning.
Adi Sankaracharya,as Rajaji puts it in his introduction to MS rendering of The Bhaja Govindam,who drank the nectar of Knowledge as one wold a sip of water from one’s palm, extols the virtues of Bhakti in his famous song/sloka Bhaja Govinda,(Repeat ‘Govinda’, a Name of Lord Vishnu)
Adi Shankaracharya,t he proponent of Advaita, Non Dualism, is one who seems to advocate Gnana Yoga, The Path Of Knowledge.
Bhaja Govindam
He assigns a great importance to the understanding of The Reality, Gnana Yoga.
But Sankaracharaya, who is such an ardent protagonist of the Path of Knowledge, reverts to Bhakti in his Bhaja Govindam.
It is, as decreed in the scriptures,, rare to be born a Human being, where limited Freedom Of Choice is offered to realize Godhood.
Depending on one’s mental attitude and dispositions. various paths for realizing Godhood are proposed in Hinduism.
1 Seek Govinda, Seek Govinda,
Seek Govinda, O Fool!
When the appointed times comes (death),
grammar rules surely will not save you.”
One may be well versed in Philosophy.
This, at best, can only satisfy the Intellectual curiosity.
May be in some, reinforce Faith.
But a faith that needs reinforcement, is no faith at all.
And mind and Logic ‘ being what they are can change and argue both ways.
So one can never know or understand Reality or God.
One, can feel Him, Experience Him.
All the knowledge one possesses would be of no use to one as one lies Dying.
It is said that one’s Life flashes before him at that point of time and nothing more.
It is very rare that one remembers God when one is acute Physical agony.
Scriptures say one is reborn based one’s last thoughts.
In tune with this, it is better to remember God as frequently as possible with the hope that we would remember His Name as we lie dying, at least by force of Habit.
In Tamil there is a Line,
-அப்போதைக்கிப்போதே சொல்லி வைத்தேன்,,
என்னை ஆண்டருள்வாய் ‘நாராயணா ‘
‘I have called out your name in advance,
Please save me Narayana’
It is very significant to note that Adi Shankaracharya uses the name ‘Govinda’
Not any other name of Vishnu or Krishna.
Govinda is one of the Names of Vishnu.
Lord Krishna was anointed as the King by Indra, as King of Cattle.
This, Vishnu Purana says, is the name which is very dear to lord Naranyana, , the other name being ‘
Om Namo Bhagavathe Vasu Devaya’ The Dwadasa Nama of Vishnu(12 Letters).
One may note that in the Apara Karma, including Sraradha, Govinda is used, even if one is a worshiper of Lord Siva: those who worship Vishnu use Narayan for auspicious occasions only.
The reason is Lord Govinda is the One who is responsible for Life after death.
Sankara uses the term ‘Samprapthe’, the good remnants of impressions of Life.
One’s death is not in one’s hands,
No body knows how or where one will die.
The impressions of the good deeds determine the manner and the time of one’s death.
Under these circumstances, one’knowledge is useless.
Only Govinda’s name alone will help.
(Literal translation is ,
‘Worship Govinda, worship Govinda, worship Govinda, Oh fool ! Rules of grammar will not save you at the time of your death.
In Vedanga all Sciences are taught, including Linguistics, Logic(Tharka)Chandas(Meters) Niruktha(How words are combined)
Even such analysis will not help at the time of death)
Pascal was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer and theologian. In mathematics, he published a treatise on the subject of projective geometry and established the foundation for probability theory. Pascal invented a mechanical calculator, and established the principles of vacuums and the pressure of air. He was raised a Roman Catholic, but in 1654 had a religious vision of God, which turned the direction of his study from science to theology. Pascal began publishing a theological work,Lettres provinciales, in 1656. His most influential theological work, the Pensées (“Thoughts”), was a defense of Christianity, which was published after his death. The most famous concept from Pensées was 
Indians
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