I have been planning to write on Buddhism and Jainism, the two Great Religions of India apart from Hinduism.
To begin with let me share information about the propagation of Buddhism around the world.
Ashoka Maurya (/əˈʃoʊkə/; Sanskrit: अशोक मौर्य; 304–232 BCE), commonly known as Ashoka and also as Ashoka the Great, was an Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from circa 269 BCE to 232 BCE.[1] One of India’s greatest emperors, Ashoka reigned over a realm that stretched from the Hindu Kush mountains in the west to Bengal in the East and covered the entire Indian subcontinent except parts of present day Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The empire’s capital wasPataliputra (in Magadha, present-day Bihar), with provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain.
Spread of Buddhism during Asoka’s period
Asoka took to Buddhism with great zest and propagated it around the world by sending out preachers.
He had recorded this in his edicts.
Emperor Asoka’s Edicts Locations.
The Ashoka inscriptions represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history. According to the edicts, the extent of Buddhist proselytism during this period reached as far as the Mediterranean, and many Buddhist monuments were created.
The inscriptions proclaim Asoka’s beliefs in the Buddhist concept of dhamma and his efforts to develop “dhamma” throughout his kingdom. Although Buddhism and the Buddha are mentioned, the edicts of Asoka tend to focus on social and moral precepts rather than religious practices or the philosophical dimension of Buddhism.
The inscriptions revolve around a few repetitive themes: Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism, the description of his efforts to spread Buddhism, his moral and religious precepts, and his social and animal welfare program.
Ashoka explains that he converted to Buddhism out of remorse for his conquest of the Kalingas around 264 B.C.E. in eastern India (near the present-day state of Orissa):
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, conquered the Kalingas eight years after his coronation. One hundred and fifty thousand were deported, one hundred thousand were killed and many more died (from other causes). After the Kalingas had been conquered, Beloved-of-the-Gods came to feel a strong inclination towards the Dhamma, a love for the Dhamma and for instruction in Dhamma. Now Beloved-of-the-Gods feels deep remorse for having conquered the Kalingas (Rock Edict Nb13, S. Dhammika).
Following his conversion, Ashoka traveled throughout India and visited sacred Buddhist locations, where he would typically erect a pillar bearing his inscriptions:
Twenty years after his coronation, Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, visited this place and worshipped because here the Buddha, the sage of the Sakyans, was born. He had a stone figure and a pillar set up and because the Lord was born here, the village of Lumbini was exempted from tax and required to pay only one eighth of the produce (Minor Pillar Edict Nb1, S. Dhammika).
Ashoka’s concept of “Dhamma” seems to be synonymous with righteousness. In order to propagate the Buddhist faith, Ashoka explains he sent emissaries to the Hellenistic kings as far as the Mediterranean, and to the peoples throughout India, claiming they were all converted to the Dharma as a result. He names the Greek rulers of the time, inheritors of the conquest of Alexander the Great, from Bactria to as far as Greece and North Africa, displaying an amazingly clear grasp of the political situation at the time.
Buddhist proselytism at the time of kingAshoka (260-218 B.C.E.).
Now it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-of-the-Gods considers to be the best conquest. And it (conquest by Dhamma) has been won here, on the borders, even six hundred yojanas away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Rock Edict Nb13, S. Dhammika).
The distance of 600 yojanas (a yojanas being about 7 miles), corresponds to the distance between the center of India and Greece (roughly 4,000 miles).
Antiochos refers to Antiochus II Theos of Syria (261-246 B.C.E.), who controlled the Seleucid Empire from Syria to Bactria, in the east from 305 to 250 B.C.E., and was therefore a direct neighbor of Ashoka.
Ptolemy refers to Ptolemy II Philadelphos of Egypt (285-247 B.C.E.), king of the dynasty founded by Ptolemy I, a former general of Alexander the Great, in Egypt.
Antigonos refers to Antigonus II Gonatas of Macedon (278-239 B.C.E.)
Magas refers to Magas of Cyrene (300-258 B.C.E.)
Alexander refers to Alexander II of Epirus (272-258 B.C.E.)
The proof of any ancient city or a civilization is based on the following.
Jarasandha ka Akhara, sometimes spelt Jarasandh ka Akhada, better known as Ranbhumi which literally means battle field, is located at Rajgir of Nalanda District. Legend has it that this site witnessed one of the most important battles in the Mahabharata war, between Bhim and Jarasandh. In this furious battle Jarasandha was subdued and killed by Bhim. Important archeological sites nearby are Maniyar Math and Sonbhandar Caves. image credit.http://bharatiyaculture.blogspot.in/2011_05_01_archive.htmlMahabharata proof Kadothgaja’s Remains
1.Internal References in The Epic.
2.References to it in the contemporary texts.
3.Verification of information found in the References of cities, artefacts, style of living, natural calamities recorded.
4.Later references like Edicts, Temple inscriptions, epigraphs.
1.Internal references are aplenty in the Mahabharata of other Kings, Dynasties, description of Land, Flora and Fauna.
The references made to another Great Civilization and Culture, The Tamils would be more than adequate for the other references found in The Mahabharata point to the same area occupied the personae of The Mahabharata.
The reference to the Tamil Kings Chola and Pandavas in the Swayamwar,The Kurukshetra Battle of the Mahabharata War,are corroborated in Tamil Literature.
Specific mention may be made of is the reference to Arjuna marrying the daughter of a Pandyan King in Madurai when he was on a Pilgrimage, or of Perunchotruudiyalathan, the Chera King who is recorded to have fed both the Pandava and Kaurava Armies.
Tamil Classic of the Sangam Age record that The Tamil Kings, Perunchotru Udiyan Neduncheralathan performed the Tharpan or the water Rites for the dead for those killed in the Mahabharata war .
His name is Neduncheralathan.
The term Perunchoru means Big Feast and Udiyan, one ‘who fed’alluding to the fact that he fed the Kaurava and Pandava Armies.
Please refer the History of The Tamils by P.T.Srinivasa Iyengar
Then we have innumerable references by Inscriptions epigraphs.
‘Sri Kota Venkatachalam the author of the book
“Age of Mahabharata War” gives us the details regarding the inscriptional
evidences available. He states “There are mainly four inscriptions extant are
available to us which prove conclusively that the Mahabharata war occurred in
B.C. 3138 or 36 years before Kali”.
“After Parikshit died in B.C. 3041
his son Janemejaya was crowned in. In the 29th year of his reign that is in
B.C.3013-3012 or Kali 89, in the year Plavanga on Monday the-new-moon day at the
end of Chaitra, he donated two villages to two religious institutions and the
two gift deeds were prescribed. The first inscription is found published in the
pages 333, 334 of the Indian Antiquary which clearly states that the gift of
land for the worship of Sitarama made by Emperor Janamejaya in Jayabhyudaya
Yudhistira Saka 89 means Kali 89 or B.C.(3101-81)=3012″.
The 2nd
inscription is that of a copper-plate on which a gift deed in inscribed and is
preserved to this day at the Kedara Kshetra, in the Himalayas. A similar gift of
land was made by Emperor Janamejaya for the worship of Kedaranatha
swamy.
The 3rd inscription is an inscription on the walls of a temple of
a siva in the village “Iballi” in the Dharwar district. It was carved by the
direction of king Pulakesin II in A.D.634.”
Then we have references to cities and places in The Mahabharata.
“The Mahabharata also describes three cities given to the Pandavas, the heroes of
the Mahabharata, after their exile: Paniprastha, Sonaprastha & Indraprastha,
which is Delhi’s Puranaqila. These sites have been identified and yielded
pottery & antiquities, which show a cultural consistency & dating
consistent for the Mahabharata period, again verifying statements recorded in
the Vedic literatures…
Marine archaeology has also been utilized in India off the coast of the ancient
port city of Dvaraka in Gujarat, uncovering further evidence in support of
statements in the Vedic scriptures. An entire submerged city at Dvaraka, the
ancient port city of Lord Krishna with its massive fort walls, piers, warfs and
jetty has been found in the ocean as described in the Mahabharata and other
Vedic literatures.
This sanskrit verse from the Mausala Parva 7 verse 40
of the Mahabharata, describes the disappearance of the city of Dvaraka into the
sea. “After all the
people had set out, the ocean flooded Dvaraka, which still teemed with wealth of
every kind. Whatever portion of land was passed over, the ocean immediately
flooded over with its waters..
Apart from Dvaraka, more than thirty-five sites in
North India have yielded archaeological evidence and have been identified as
ancient cities described in the Mahabharatha. Copper utensils, iron, seals, gold
& silver ornaments, terracotta discs and painted grey ware pottery have all
been found in these sites. Scientific dating of these artifacts corresponds to
the non-aryan-invasion model of Indian antiquity”
Some of the sites excavated by The Archaeological Survey of India. Visit the Link for more.
Ahichchhatra, Dt. Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh Ahichchhatra which is identified by Alexander Cunningham as Ahicchatra of ancient literature is about 11 km north of Aonla, the tehsil headquarter. This site was first excavated by Cunningham and then by K.N. Dikshit assisted by A. Gosh and others in 1940-44. They identified Nine periods of occupation called ‘strata’ starting from pre mauryan period ( pre 300 BC) up to1100 AD. Besides other things the excavation also reveled number of coins which includes caste coins from the earliest starta followed by panchala coins ( I st C. BC), Kusana coins, coins of Acyu, who is identified with Acyuta, the king who was defeated and the territory annexed by Samudragupta etc. The dates of the various stratums have been arrived based on the coin finds, viz., Stratum IX, before 300 BC; Stratum VIII, 300 to 200 BC; Stratum VII, 200 to 100 BC; Strata VI and V, 100 BC to AD 100; Stratum N, AD 100 to 350; Stratum III, AD 350 to 750; Stratum II, AD 750 to 850; and Stratum I AD 850 to 1100.
Ahicchatra was excavated again by N.R. Banerjee of the ASI in 1963-4 and 1964-5 which brought to light four cultural periods named as Period I to IVstarting from OCP. PGW followed by NBPW up to Kusana Gupta period.
The presence of PGW and NBPW in the core of the rampart indicates that it was built during Period IV. Four phases of expansion and repair of the rampart was brought to light.
Hastinapura, (29°9′; 78°3′), Dt Meerut ,Uttar Pradesh Located on the right bank of an old bed of the Ganga, known in literature and tradition as the capital of the Kauravas of the Mahabharata fame. On the bank of the Budhi Ganga, two places known as Draupadi Ghat and Kama Ghat remind one of the Mahabharata personages. Three Jaina tirthankaras, Sailtinatha, Kunthunatha and Aranatha, are believed to have been associated with Hastinapura.
Kanauj, (Kannauj, Kanoj); (27°3′; 79°59′), Dt Farrukhabad, Uttar Pradesh
The ancient city, variously known as Kanyakubja, Kanyakubja, Mahodaya, Mahodaya, Gadhirura, Gadhinagara, Kusasthala, Kausa, Kausika and Kusumapura (the last according to Hiuen Tsang), situated on the s. bank of the Bhagirathi near the confluence of the Ganga and Kali. The ASI conducted a small scale excavation at the mound known as Qila in 1955 (IAR 1955-6, p. 19); Prior to that a few stone sculptures-chaturmukha lingas, Varaha retrieving the Earth, Kalyansundara murti, standing Surya and Visvarupa standing with Sndevi and Bhudevi, all belonging to the 7th-8th centuries (Ghosh, 1953), and a later dancing Ganesha had been recovered from the neighbouring regions. Explorations in the early years of. this decade have brought to light a treasure of archaeological wealth. The pottery includes the PGW represented by the bowl and dish, Black-slipped Ware, fine as well as coarse red ware and the NBPW. Several stone sculptures have been found the prominent of them being those of Parvati, Karttikeya, Surya, Vishnu, Siva, Ganesa and some Jaina figures datable from the 4th century A.D. to the medieval times.
The place has yielded variety of terracotta figurines and plaque both human and animal are datable from the 3rd century B.C. to the 12th century A.D. notable among them are a handmade torso of the mother-goddess Gaja-Lakshmi plaque in typical Sujiga style, standing Mithuna Naigamesha figures, both male and female, Mother-and-child (ankadhatri) figurines, Dampati figurines are also made from a shallow mould etc.
Some of them show traces of red slip and one specimen bears black slip. These present diverse hair styles, the lenticular eyes have round pupils, the elongated ears are applied and the stwnpy arms and legs indicate fingers and toes by incised lines.
The other terracotta objects are animal figurines of the horse, bull, birds and rider with cap; skin rubbers spindle whorls with decorated edges; beads of areca-nut shape; and moulds of the Sunga and Gupta periods for producing human figurines. An ivory die and several bone points have also been recovered. All the terracotta figurines and other objects except the stone sculptures recall similar finds from Ahichchhtra. Period I may be dated to c. 100 B.C. on the basis of PGW, Black –slipped Wareand other pottery. Period II is characterized by the find of the NBPW and is hence dated to 600-200 B.C.
Period IV has seven Sub-Periods based on the structures built of lakhauri, some of them in lime mortar and a few also plastered with the same material. Glazed pottery and coarse red and black wares confirm that the levels belong to the late medieval times.
Mathura (27O31’’; 77°14′),Dt. Headquarters Uttar Pradesh
Situated on the Yamuna, a city with a long history as a political centre from early times till at least the early centuries of the Christian era. With the discovery in 1836 of a scupture labeled as ‘Silenus’ the rich antiquarian remains of Mathura attracted art-collectors and archaeologists. Various localities in the city and its neighbourhood were subjectede to digging from about the middle of the last century by Cunningham, Growse, Burgess, Hardinge,Fuhrer, Vogel, Radha Krishna and others..
It was only in 1954-5 that M. Venkataramayya and B. Saran of the ASI obtained a cultural sequence of the Katra mound, an extensive habitation site, ranging in date between 600 B.C. and A.D 600, according to their estimate (IAR 1954-5, p. 15): Further excavations were conducted by M.C. Joshi on behalf of the ASI at about 14 sites from 1973-4 to 1976-7 with the principal objective of examining the antiquity, growth and character of historical Mathura. As a result a sequence of the following cultural Periods has been obtained: Period I, from c. 6th to the closing decades of the 4th century B.C.; Period II, from the closing decades of the 4th century to c. 200 B.C.; Period III, from c. 200 to about the end of the 1st century B.C.;Period IV, from the beginning of the 1st to about the 3rd century; and Period V, from c. the 4th to about the close of the 6th century. Others believing in an earlier origin of the PGW, present in Period I, if Hastinapura, would ascribe an earlier date to the beginning of Period I.
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